Les ingénieurs « passeurs » de l’innovation
Par Alain Goudey le mercredi, 11 novembre 2009, 20:22 - Chapitre 1 : introduction - Lien permanent
Si la promotion de l’innovation dans les entreprises revient aux ingénieurs, il n’est guère évident de définir ce qu’est un ingénieur tant leurs secteurs d’interventions sont importants. Nous examinerons cette population particulière, son statut puis ses métiers.

Les ingénieurs : une population particulière
Les différentes écoles d’ingénieurs françaises forment annuellement environ 30 000 nouveaux ingénieurs. Le CDEFI (1) (Conférence des Directeurs des Ecoles Françaises d’Ingénieurs) recense actuellement 585 200 ingénieurs diplômés de moins de 60 ans et un ingénieur âgé de moins de 30 ans sur quatre est une femme. Selon le CDEFI, un tiers des ingénieurs français sont formés dans les « Grandes Ecoles » généralistes, alors que les autres viennent des écoles spécialisées ou de formations universitaires au niveau Bac+5.
Les ingénieurs se sont regroupés sous une fédération appelée Conseil National des Ingénieurs et Scientifiques de France (CNISF), reconnue d’utilité publique depuis 1860. Le CNISF regroupe 160 associations d'anciens élèves d'écoles d'ingénieurs et de sociétés d'ingénieurs et de scientifiques et représente ainsi quelques 160 000 membres directs et indirects.
Les domaines dans lesquels les connaissances techniques des ingénieurs peuvent s’appliquer recouvrent en fait la totalité de la vie sociale. Les ingénieurs se retrouvent dans la recherche et l’enseignement, occupent des postes dans l’aéronautique, l’agronomie, l’astronomie, l’astronautique, l’astrophysique, l’automobile, le bâtiment et travaux publics, la biologie, la chimie, les constructions, l’écologie, l’électricité et l’électronique, l’énergie, l’hydraulique, l’industrie, l’informatique et les réseaux, la logistique, la mécanique, la météorologie, l’optronique et les nano technologies, la robotique, le spatial, la science des matériaux, les sciences de la terre et de l’Univers, les statistiques, le textile, les transports, etc. Cette liste à la Prévert correspond bien à la multitude des offres d’emploi qui leur sont destinées, aussi bien « dans l'industrie, le bâtiment, les travaux publics, l'agriculture ou les services » (Définition du site du CDEFI).
Les origines de l’ingénieur : de la protection de la société à la guerre économique
L’origine du mot ingénieur est latine et « genius » a donné en français contemporain « génie » mais aussi « ingénieux », « ingéniosité » en plus du terme d’ingénieur. L’ingénieur grec et latin avec ses machines de guerre, mais aussi ses inventions civiles –vis à eau, moulin, etc.- protège et aide la société et permet aux grands d’asseoir leur pouvoir. Il jouit ainsi d’une forte reconnaissance sociale. De nos jours, homme (ou femme) de sciences, l’ingénieur utilise dans son travail principalement les mathématiques, les sciences physiques et celles du vivant pour développer les technologies et techniques utiles à sa communauté. Dans une époque où les pays ont remplacé les invasions et la guerre par la guerre économique, on peut considérer que les activités de l’ingénieur contribuent à la conception, à l’élaboration, à la domestication de la nature et par là il facilite les rapports et la vie de ses contemporains.
Il est fréquent de faire remonter l’origine des ingénieurs à la révolution industrielle et à la création des écoles d’ingénieurs. Pourtant, les grands travaux civils, la construction navale de grands bâtiments de course –qui existaient depuis des siècles-relevaient du métier d’ingénieur. De même, si la plupart des écoles d’ingénieurs ont bien été créées au 19ème siècle, l’industrie ne fait appel aux ingénieurs civils qu’avec les Saint-simoniens, qui sont souvent des Polytechniciens. Enfin, les travaux de Bertrand Gille (2) sur les ingénieurs de la Renaissance montrent bien la persistance de toute une lignée d’ingénieurs civils au cours des siècles (3). Sauf à de rares époques comme pendant la révolte des Luddistes (4) ou lorsque les contemporains de Jacquard saccagent ses métiers à tisser qui ruinent leurs emplois, l’ingénieur jouit d’une image positive liée à son utilité sociale. L’origine noble ou bourgeoise des premiers cadres de l’industrie et de l’entreprise moderne, formés dans les corps techniques et militaires de l’Etat contribue à renforcer ce point. Si le recrutement de l’Ecole Polytechnique, mis en place par la Convention est très démocratique, Bonaparte (5) renforce rapidement le niveau de mathématiques du concours et oblige les élèves à suivre deux années de préparation scientifique intensive, si bien que dès 1810, tous les élèves ont la même origine sociale.
Ce thème est repris par les positivistes et les grands auteurs : Balzac, Fabry, Verne et Zola. L’ingénieur, chevalier des temps modernes est accueilli dans les bonnes familles bourgeoises et industrielles comme un gendre idéal car il présente toutes les garanties et les qualités, y compris celle de réconcilier les classes sociales entre elles. C’est l’image de la réussite et de la promotion sociale à l’image du fils de Marius qui chez Pagnol, rentre à l’X. La valorisation de l’ingénieur dans la société culmine au 20ème siècle, avec la civilisation technicienne et « un monde d’ingénieur » selon l’expression de Michel Touraine. Après la seconde guerre mondiale, les ingénieurs affirmeront leur pouvoir dans les entreprises (6) créant parfois des difficultés de gestion et des rigidités.
Leur image ne sera que progressivement remise en question dans les années 1970 lorsque la société « désenchantée » considérera que le mythe du progrès technique éternel et bienfaiteur est un leurre. Ce consensus social autour de l’ingénieur figurant dans l’élite du pays est si fort qu’il occulte – pour la majorité des gens - la segmentation entre les ingénieurs civils et ceux de l’Etat qui est pourtant bien réelle ainsi que la forte hiérarchie qui existe entre les écoles.
L’ingénieur et l’innovation un thème fondateur de la société
L’innovation technologique semble donc liée à l’existence des ingénieurs capables d’apporter une forte valeur ajoutée dans la conception de nouveaux produits, à leur mise au point et à leur production. Joseph Schumpeter (7) a largement contribué à la création de ce mythe, car pour lui le rôle fondamental est celui de l’entrepreneur, de l’innovateur –ingénieur-, bien plus important que celui du capital dans le processus de création économique. L’ingénieur, le génie inventeur est à l’origine de l’énergie créatrice. Pourtant, très curieusement, ce rôle fondamental dans la société se double de l’oubli de leur nom. La mémoire collective retient beaucoup plus souvent le nom des banquiers (les frères Péreire, les Rotschild) que de ceux des grands ingénieurs. Lorsque leur nom passe à la postérité, comme celui de Louis Blériot, André Citroën, Gustave Eiffel, André Michelin, c’est en fait l’entreprise qu’ils ont créée qui est mémorisée. Quel est l’homme de la rue qui peut citer les inventions de Louis Armand (SNCF), Jean Bertin (aérotrain), Pierre Guillaumat (CEA), Eugène Flachat (chemins de fer), Roland Moreno (carte à puce) pour ne citer qu’eux ?.
- (1) CDEFI (Conférence des Directeurs des Ecoles Françaises d’Ingénieurs). Voir site : http://www.ingenieurs-france.fr/
- (2) Gille B. (1978).- Les ingénieurs de la Renaissance, Seuil, Paris
- (3) Dans l’Encyclopédie, Diderot et d’Alembert écrivent « Nous avons trois sortes d'ingénieurs, les uns pour la guerre : ils doivent savoir tout ce qui concerne la construction, l'attaque et la défense des places. Les seconds pour la marine, qui sont versés dans ce qui a rapport à la guerre et au service de mer. Les troisièmes pour les ponts et chaussées, qui sont perpétuellement occupés à la perfection des grandes routes, de la construction des ponts, de l'embellissement des rues, de la conduite et réparation des canaux, etc. Toutes ces sortes d'hommes sont élevés dans les écoles, d'où ils passent à leur service, commençant par les postes les plus bas et s'élevant avec le temps et le mérite aux places les plus distinguées. ».
- (4) Le terme luddisme (du nom d’un ouvrier anglais Ned Ludd) désigne le conflit violent qui a opposé en Angleterre dans les années 1811-1812 les employeurs de l’industrie textile aux ouvriers et artisans qui refusaient l'emploi de métiers à tisser. Par extension, le terme désigne ceux qui s'opposent aux nouvelles technologies. Les deux révoltes sanglantes des Canuts à Lyon en novembre 1831 et avril 1934 sont, elles aussi, une riposte violente à l’introduction du métier à tisser de Joseph-Marie Jacquard.
- (5) La lettre de Bonaparte à P.S. de Laplace est sans ambiguïtés: « il est dangereux de donner une formation avancée à des gens qui ne sont pas issus de familles riches ».
- (6) En particulier l’association des ingénieurs des entreprises privées créée par le Général B. Esambert qui s’appelait « Pouvoir gris ».Voir à ce sujet l’ouvrage « La formation supérieure des ingénieurs et cadres ». Colloque tenu à l’Unesco, pour le deux-centième anniversaire de l’Ecole polytechnique et du Conservatoire National des Arts & métiers, Paris, 1994. P., J.M. Place, 1995. 156 p. (pp.53 et sq.)
- (7) Schumpeter J. (1935), Théorie de l’évolution économique, Dalloz

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